The Coming of the Steppe Peoples and the Mongols

The Abbasids

The reign of the Abbasids has often been considered the apex of early Islamic society. The early Abbasid rulers created a new administrative structure, using primarily Persian civil servants. The most important office that emerged from this structure was that of wazir, or vizier, who served a variety of functions under the caliphs and sultans. The Abbasids also improved communications throughout their empire, expanding their postal service and publishing a series of booklets on how to transact business with the government in Arabic (by that time the official language of the empire). Perhaps the most important decision by the Abbasids was to move their capital from Syria to Baghdad, in modern Iraq. This allowed for an expansion of trade, leading the Abbasids to become one of the largest trade empires of the time. Because of the vast territory the Abbasids governed, trade during their reign was freer, safer, and much more extensive than it had been previously.

The Abbasids were fortunate in that they benefited from a series of very good caliphs, who ruled the state during the Golden Age. The Golden Age was a period of unparalleled activity in terms of science, technology, literature, history, and the like. Significant discoveries in astronomy (including the construction of the first observatory and the first astrolabe) helped advance the study of the stars and planets. Advancements in chemistry, alchemy, surgery, and anatomy all surpassed anything the West was doing the same time period. The Golden Age saw significant advancements in agricultural techniques, including the development of paper making as well as the introduction of a variety of new agricultural products to the Middle Eastern (and subsequently the European) diet. Literature expanded tremendously, with a variety of new literary techniques becoming commonplace among the writers of the period. The study of mathematics was one of the most pursued, and the creation of the “House of Wisdom”, a Baghdad based center for intellectual pursuits, oversaw this development. Under the leadership of the scholars within the House of Wisdom, the Arabic numeration system (which had in fact been developed in India) became widespread, and helped contribute to the creation of algebra. The other area that saw significant advancements was the field of medicine, where certain specializations (most notably ocular science) were expanded on considerably; many of the texts from this period continued to be regularly used into the period of the Renaissance in Western Europe, and beyond. All told, this period saw the advancement of Islamic society far beyond that which the Western European were capable (keeping in mind that, with the exception of the reign of Charlemagne, Europe was ensconced in the Dark Ages during this period; by 840, the territories that had previously belonged to Charlemagne were torn apart by civil war and Viking invasions, and most of the regions would not recover for centuries.

The Abbasid reign, especially the first 150 years, was one of great development and advancement. However, as with so many of the reigns in the first millennia, this was not destined to last. By 870, cracks had started to appear in the foundation of the empire; by 950, the Golden Age had ended, and while the religious authority of the Abbasid caliphs would remain intact, their political power began to rapidly diminish. The most successful of these successor states, such as the Fatimids in North Africa, would secure reigns of 100-200 years, but eventually they would all fall to one of the two major steppe peoples: the Mongols or the Turks.

The Seljuk Turks

The Crusades

Despite the separation of the Eastern and Western churches in 1054, certain issues still commanded the attention of both, none so much as checking the advancement of Islam into Europe. When Emperor Alexius of the Byzantine Empire appealed to Pope Urban II for assistance in fighting against the Muslims in the Holy Land, Urban responded by calling for a Crusade, or holy war. The response was immediate and electric: Urban had promised remission of sins for all who undertook the Crusade, and aristocrats and other began to sign up in large numbers.

. Urban called the first Crusade in 1096, and by 1099 the Crusaders had succeeded in "liberating" Jerusalem from the Muslim invaders. Crusaders then established principalities throughout the Holy Land, which served as European outposts on the eastern Mediterranean. However, these principalities were by no means secure, and within 20 years of the original victories of the Crusaders, the Muslims were already reclaiming lands taken during the Crusades.

. The second Crusade, called by Bernard of Clairveaux, was a disaster, primarily because its two leaders, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, could not agree on much of anything. To make matters worse, Louis VII's wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had accompanied him on Crusade and was accused of having an affair with her cousin, Raymond, who was one of the leaders of the Crusade as well; within two years, Eleanor and Louis would be separated. (Raymond died in the Holy Land).

. The third Crusade was largely in response to the rising power of the Syrian Muslims, particularly the leadership of Saladin. Saladin is one of the most interesting rulers of this period: a devout Muslim, he was also a very benevolent victor, refusing to allow the slaughter of the captured and allowing Christian services to continue in Jerusalem after his capture of the city in 1187. The leaders of the third Crusade-Richard I of England, Frederick Barbarossa of the HRE, and Philip II of France-loathed each other by the end of the Crusade. Philip and Richard had (according to most sources) been lovers as young men and despised each other by the time of the Crusade. Barbarossa drowned while crossing a river (he was swept away) and his army abandoned the Crusade, leaving Philip and Richard as the two remaining allies. Richard was forced to go it on his own (he was the far better military commander) while Philip essentially sulked and eventually left. After negotiating the rights of pilgrims to visit Jerusalem, Richard left the Holy Land to return to England, only to be captured and held prisoner at the behest of his younger brother, John, who wished to rule England in his stead (this is the time period of the Robin Hood legends).

. The fourth Crusade, held several years later, in essence was not a Crusade at all, as the Crusaders attacked the city of Constantinople, raping women and pillaging the stores of the city. (They retained control of the city for over 50 years). . The fifth Crusade, or the Children's Crusade, essentially led to the deaths of thousands of innocents; the pope had believed that only those who were pure could save the Holy Land. . The other Crusades (six-eight) were primarily about plunder and wealth, and were finally ended when the Muslims succeeded in capturing the last Christian outpost, Acre. Despite the efforts of the Knights Templar and other holy orders (most of whom died in the fighting), the Crusades had, over a period of 200 years, resulted in no significant or true gains for the Christians.

By the end of the 12th century, the Crusades had ceased to be of major concern to the peoples of the Middle East, but a new and powerful force was about to enter their world: the Mongols.

The Mongols

The Mongols were a nomadic people, who lived in the areas of modern day Mongolia, Manchuria, and Siberia. Like many of the nomadic peoples of the time, the Mongols were loosely associated with each other, but most of the clans remained independent. That changed with the rise of Temujin, the son of one of the tribal chiefs. According to legend, Temujin, who was born in either 1155 or 1162, was born with a blood clot clenched in his fist. The shamans of the tribe interpreted this to mean that he was fated to rule over the peoples of the steppe, and in 1206 he was declared Genghis Khan, or Universal Ruler. He worked quickly to consolidate the holdings of the Mongols, unifying the clans and seizing large amounts of territory, including much of China. His death, in 1227, led to a peaceful transition of power to his third son, Ugedey, who ruled as khan until 1237. Mongolian armies had moved west after their conquest of China, attacking Samarkand and the Muslim kingdoms of Central Asia. Their methods were brutal and reminiscent of the types of battles fought by the ancient Assyrians. No quarter was given to the enemy, and the Mongols became notorious for their brutal suppression of peoples who were conquered. Usually, only a few survivors were left alive, and those men were expected to travel to the next town to tell the tale of the supremacy of the Mongols. If a town defied the Mongols, it was sacked and destroyed.

In 1240, the Mongols attacked the steppe regions, sacking and destroying Kiev and capturing Moscow, which had just begun to emerge as a major city. After these successes, the Mongols turned their attentions west, attacking Hungary, Poland, and parts of modern Germany. Most historians agree that if Batu Khan had not been recalled to Khartoum to participate in the election of a new khan (he himself was a candidate), much if not all of Western Europe would have been under Mongol control. Instead, in 1242, Batu Khan and his men returned to Khartoum, and then to Sarai, which Batu Khan established as his capital. All of Russia was under the control of Batu Khan's forces, who became known as the Golden Horde because of the tents under which their men camped. However, this withdrawal did not save the Abbasid leaders; in 1258, after years of skirmishes, the Mongols sacked Baghdad, killed the caliph, and ended some 500 years of Abbasid rule. Despite their successes, the Mongols had a comparatively limited effect on the Middle East (and on most of the other areas they conquered); instead, they tended to rule through representatives. With the victory of the Mongols over Baghdad, three major centers of power emerged: Iran, controlled by the Mongols; Turkey, under the successors to the Seljuk Turks, a group known as the Ottomans; and Egypt, under the leadership of the Mamluks. Each of these groups would struggle for power against both the European powers and against each other, with the Ottomans eventually emerging as victorious. In 1453, after years of besieging Constantinople, the city fell to the Ottomans, marking the end of the Eastern Roman Empire and a new era of power and control in the Middle East.